Historical investigator Damo Bullen has done it again! This time he has discovered the true origins of the mysterious language spoken by the ancient Minoans of Crete – 134 words’ worth of translations
Linear A
The language of Linear A has remained one of the greatest unsolved linguistic mysteries of the ancient world. Although the script itself can largely be read through its relationship with Linear B, the language it records has resisted every serious attempt at decipherment. Numerous theories have been advanced over the past century, yet no consensus has emerged regarding its linguistic affiliation.
The approach adopted here is deliberately modest. Rather than attempting a complete decipherment of Linear A, I have undertaken a systematic lexical analysis of the inscriptions whose phonetic values are known through comparison with Linear B. These lexical forms are then examined for morphological and semantic correspondences with Proto-Uralic and its descendant languages. The results have proved remarkable. As individual words and place-names are viewed through a Uralic framework, many begin to resolve into coherent lexical forms whose meanings are consistent with their archaeological and geographical contexts. More importantly, the vocabulary that emerges is precisely the type one would expect from a Bronze Age civilisation, containing words associated with settlements, landscapes, agriculture, animals, seafaring, administration and religious practice rather than anachronistic concepts imposed by hindsight.
In addition to the lexical evidence preserved within the Linear A inscriptions themselves, this study also examines the topography of Crete and the wider Minoan world. Ancient place-names often preserve archaic linguistic elements long after a spoken language has disappeared, making them valuable witnesses to the past. By analysing the names of mountains, rivers, settlements, islands and coastal features for lexical and morphological correspondences with the Uralic language family, I came to the conclusion that Uralic formed part of the wider linguistic environment of Bronze Age Crete & beyond, into Ancient Greece itself.
LIST OF ENTRIES
A
ABU — father
A-DA-KI-SI-KA — distribution; allocation; giving out
AKA — old woman; grandmother; wife
AMNISOS — mother’s breast
APU — help; aid
A-RA-NA-RE — hearth; fireplace grating
A-RA-U-DA — ploughing; cultivation; cultivated land
ASASUMA-ISE — dwelling; settlement; habitation
ASE — weapon; implement; tool
A-TA-I-JO — father’s; ancestral
AWAPI — silver
B
BOUTHOE — waterfall; cascade
C
CARIA — reef; rocky shoal; skerry
CORFU — deep forest; wilderness
D
DA-ME — we; this
DARIDA — story; tale
DAROPA — tale; legend; myth
DASI — level; even; equal
DA-SI MI-TU — equal measure; standard measure; measured weight
DAWEDA — bend; curve; fold
DI-KI-TE — long mountain
DITAMANA — diamond
E
ES — and
EVIA (EUBOEA) — fish fin
F
FE — to milk; head
FE-ES-KI-SE — all stars
FE-LU-NA — cloud
FE-NU / FE-NE — light
FE-PA — tree; wood
FE-WA-LE — heat; warming
H
HAROR — ridge; crest
I
I-DA — mountain
J
JA-SA-SA-RA-MA-NA — as/in the role of (derived noun)
JA-SA-SA-RA-ME — we
JE-NA — come
JETI — voice; sound
JU — river place
K
KADI — hand
KALYMNOS — fish
KANA — hen
KANAKA — chick
KA-NU-TI — isthmus; ridge; meadow place
KA-RO-PA — basket; woven container
KAUDETA — pour; overturn; through
KEDA — meadow; dry grassland
KI — stone; rocky place
KI-DA-RO — praise; thank
KI-DA-TA — praise; thank
KIDEMA — crystal; grain-like structure
KI-RE — writing; inscription; mark
KIRETA — writing; inscription
KIRETANA — writing; inscription
KIREZA — writing; letter
KIRO — curse; spell; malediction
KU-MI-NA — caraway; cumin
KU-PA-DO — from the bundle; from the sheaf; from the heap; from storage
KU-DO-NI / KU-DO-NI-JA — dwelling place; settlement; inhabited district
KUKANI / QUQANI — flower
KU-KU-DA-RA — settlement; dwelling; person (uncertain)
KU-NI-SU — rounded hill; mound; hill; king
KUPA — cup; small vessel
KU-PA-JA — vessel; container
KURA — mud; dirt; slush
KU-RO — collection; total; whole
KU-TA-TO — dwelling; settlement; inhabited place
KUZUNI — spruce tree
KYTHERA — ridge; edge
L
LACONIA — open; broad; level
LYCHNIDUS — bay meadow; inlet meadow
M
MA-DI — land; district; territory
MA-RU — berry
MELOS — paddle; oar
MESARA — land strip; field strip; cultivated plain
MITU — measure; measurement
MI-TU KU-RO — total measure; complete quantity; overall measure
-MU — accusative case ending
N
NA-TI — meadow; grassland
NE-RA — small stream; wet ground
NIPA — small piece; fragment; tip
NIRA — young spruce
NOJA — support; leaning place
-NU — adverbial suffix
NUDU — coat; garment
P
PA-I-TO — flat surface; plateau; flat-topped place
PAJARE — smithy; forge; workshop
PA-RA — best; excellence
PARNASSOS — ridge
PA-SE — wash
PA-SI — head; chief
PAZEQE — pass through; escape
PIMITATIRA — dark
PITAKASE — long
PU-J — blow
PU-KO — knife
PU-RA₂ — bitten; gnawed; chewed
PU-U-TA — wind
Q
QAJO — glow; gleam; dawn light; reflection
QA-NU-MA — hens; poultry
QA-PA — vessel; measuring container
QA-QA-RO / QA-QA-RU — child; lump; rounded mass
QA-RE-TO — edge; ridge; reef; herd; path
QARETO — cattle; livestock; herd
QA-RYA-WA / QE-RYA-U — variegated; patterned; decorated; multicoloured
QI-NA — recipient; estate; place; administrative district
R
RI-KU — cry out; vocalisation; movement; emotional expression
S
SALAMINA — hidden; secret
SA-RA — king; ruler
SA-RU — horn; antler; horn-shaped object
SE / ∫E — father; ancestor
SE-RI — love; feeling; condition
SE-SA — grow; increase; development
SE-TE-NA — perform magic; ritual activity
SE-TO-I-JA — region; district; territorial place
SI-SE — inside; interior
SKIATHOS — land between two rivers; wedge-shaped ridge
SU-PU — vessel; container
SU-PA-RA — funnel-shaped vessel; hollow vessel
SUPU — enclosed place; hidden place
SU-KI-RI-TA — place at the side; place on the edge; settlement by the ravine
SU-RA / SI-RA — edge; side; boundary
SYMI — the Sámi place; place of the Sámi
T
TA — this; he; she
TA-NA — this; present
TA-NA-TU — this; present
TARAWITA — enclosure; pen; garden
TASAZA — level; even; equal
TE-KE — make; do
TE-KI — did; made
TEREZA — blade; edge; sharp point
THERA — edge; sharp ridge; cliff
TI — road; path; you (plural)
TU-RU-SA — at the elevation; in the hill country; at the bank
U
USU — mist; haze; vapour
W
WI-NA-DU — wine; liquid produce; liquid commodity
WI-SA-SA-NE — the wise one; overseer; administrative official
Z
ZU / DO — unknown administrative designation
ABU
Attestation: Linear A ABU.
Revesz’s interpretation: “Father.”
Comparison: Hungarian apa, “father.”
Discussion: Revesz identifies ABU as a kinship term corresponding to “father.” He argues that kinship vocabulary is among the most conservative elements of language and therefore provides particularly valuable evidence for long-term linguistic relationships.
A-DA-KI-SI-KA
Attestation: Linear A tablet KH 5 from Khania, appearing at the beginning of the recorded sequence.
Proposed Meaning: Distribution, allocation, or giving out.
Comparison: May be compared with Hungarian ad, “to give,” and ki, “out,” together with suffixes resembling Finnic -ksi and Uralic derivational endings such as -ka or -kä.
Discussion: The word displays the layered structure expected of an agglutinative language, with several grammatical elements apparently attached to a verbal root. In the administrative context of KH 5, a meaning connected with issuing, allocating, or distributing goods is plausible. The form may therefore describe the principal action recorded on the tablet.
AKA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: The form AKA may be compared with the widespread Uralic kinship term represented by Finnish akka, Estonian akka, and Sámi cognate forms, meaning “old woman”, “grandmother”, or “wife”.
Discussion: AKA presents one of the simpler lexical comparisons. The similarity involves both sound structure and semantic field. Kinship terminology is generally regarded as conservative vocabulary and frequently survives over long periods within language families. The correspondence raises the possibility that the word belonged to the domain of kinship or social status.
AMNISOS
Attestation: A-MI-NI-SO (Linear B); Amnisos.
Type: Harbour settlement.
Location: North coast of Crete, harbour of Knossos.
Source: Linear B tablets; later Greek sources.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnic emä
• Finnic nisa
Meaning:
“Mother’s breast.”
Discussion:
The place-name Amnisos raises the possibility of comparison with the widespread Uralic word emä, meaning “mother,” together with nisa, meaning “breast” or “teat.” The resulting meaning may be understood metaphorically as “mother’s breast” or “the nourishing mother.”
The geographical and religious context of Amnisos is particularly significant. The settlement served as the principal harbour of Knossos, receiving maritime traffic before the route continued inland to the palace complex. The harbour therefore functioned as the point through which goods entered and sustained the great Minoan centre, much as nourishment is received from a mother. Nearby stood the celebrated cave sanctuary of Eileithyia, the Minoan and later Greek goddess of childbirth, while the Amnisiades, the nymphs associated with the locality, likewise belonged to traditions concerned with birth and fertility.
The name itself occupies an important place in the history of Aegean studies. During the decipherment of Linear B, the recognition of Amnisos as the harbour of Knossos formed one of the geographical identifications that helped confirm the reading of place-names within the script. Once securely recognised, other geographical names became progressively easier to identify. The convergence of topography, cult practice and the settlement’s role as the maritime gateway to Knossos makes the comparison noteworthy.
APU
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish apu, “help”, “aid”.
Discussion: The correspondence between Linear A APU and Finnish apu is exact under the conventional transliteration.
A-RA-NA-RE
Linear B parallel: a-ra-na-ro
Strongest Uralic comparison: Finnic arina, “hearth; fireplace grating”.
Finnish arina denotes the grate or base of a fireplace, while Votic arinõ means “hearth”. The reconstructed Finnic form is approximately *arina. The sequence a-ra-na- is not exact, but the variation between a, i, and unstressed vowels might permit comparison within the provisional phonetic system used for Linear A.
A tentative segmentation might be:
A-RA-NA + -RE
A-ra-na could denote a hearth, grate or burning-place, while -re would remain unexplained. The Linear B form a-ra-na-ro may represent the same stem with a Greek or Mycenaean ending substituted for the Linear A ending.
A-RA-U-DA
Attestation: Linear A tablet KH 5 from Khania, within an agricultural administrative sequence.
Proposed Meaning: Ploughing, cultivation, or cultivated land.
Comparison: May be compared with Finnish aurata, “to plough,” and aura, “plough,” together with related Finnic agricultural forms.
Discussion: The Linear A sequence preserves the same principal vowel and consonant pattern as the Finnic agricultural term. The difference between t and d is compatible with dental variation, while the script may have represented diphthongs and consonant sequences only approximately. Because KH 5 concerns agricultural goods and livestock, a meaning connected with ploughing or cultivated land fits the context particularly well.
ASASUMA–ISE
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish and Estonian asua, asuma, “to dwell”, “settlement”, “habitation”.
Discussion: Finnish asuma refers to a dwelling or inhabited place, while related verbal forms denote residence or habitation. If the hypothesis proposed here is correct, the Linear A form may have denoted a settlement, habitation, or place of residence. The internal repetition of syllables may represent derivation or reduplication rather than simple repetition.
ASE
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish ase, “weapon”, “implement”, “tool”.
Discussion: The phonetic agreement is exact. Finnish ase denotes a weapon but may also refer more generally to equipment or implements.
A-TA-I-JO
Attestation: Linear A A-TA-I-JO.
Revesz’s interpretation: “Father’s” or “ancestral.”
Comparison: Compared with possessive constructions in the Uralic languages.
Discussion: Revesz interprets this form as a possessive expression referring to an ancestor or father. He argues that the grammatical construction reflects the agglutinative morphology characteristic of Uralic languages, in which possessive suffixes are attached directly to lexical roots
AWAPI
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish hopea, “silver”.
Discussion: The word could belong to the vocabulary of metals or valuable commodities. Since precious metals occur frequently in Bronze Age administrative documents, the semantic field is not implausible.
BOUTHOE
Attestation: Ancient Bouthoe (modern Budva, Montenegro), traditionally associated with the travels of Cadmus in Greek mythology.
Comparison: The second element -thoe may be compared with the Finnic verbal root puto-, preserved in Finnish pudota, “to fall”, and putous, “waterfall, cascade”. The initial consonant correspondence (b/p) is comparable to alternations observed elsewhere in the comparisons presented in this study.
Discussion: The hinterland of ancient Bouthoe rises rapidly into wooded mountains containing streams, ravines, and seasonal waterfalls. The place-name may originally have referred to a locality characterised by falling water or cascades.
CARIA
Attestation: Caria.
Type: Region.
Location: Southwestern Anatolia.
Source: Minoan and later Greek tradition.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnic kari
Meaning:
“Reef,” “rocky shoal,” or “skerry.”
Discussion:
The regional name Caria raises the possibility of comparison with the Finnic word kari, meaning a reef, rocky shoal or skerry – the proposed meaning would closely reflect the physical geography of the Carian coastline. Southwestern Anatolia is characterised by deeply indented shores, rocky reefs, offshore islands and sheltered coves. These are precisely the coastal features denoted by the Finnic word kari.
CORFU
Attestation: Corfu, an island in the Ionian Sea.
Comparison: Finnish korpi.
Meaning: “Deep forest”, “wilderness.”
Discussion: Corfu was heavily wooded in antiquity, and much of the island remained forested for centuries. The comparison between Kor- and Finnish korpi therefore corresponds well with the natural landscape.
DA-ME
Linear A and Linear B: identical form.
Strongest Uralic comparison: first-person plural -me, or a demonstrative stem resembling Finnic tä-/tämä.
The final -me may be compared with the ancient Uralic first-person plural verbal ending, preserved in Finnish forms such as olemme, “we are”, and Estonian oleme. However, da-me is too short to determine whether -me is genuinely a suffix.
A more speculative comparison is Finnish tämä, “this”, historically built upon a demonstrative element tä-. If Linear A d represented a dental sound differing from Mycenaean Greek d, da-me could conceivably approximate a form such as tä-mä. This would require both consonantal and vowel adjustments and should therefore be treated cautiously.
Possible analyses are:
DA + -ME — “we [do/are] X”
or
DA-ME — “this”
Possible meaning: a first-person plural verbal form or demonstrative expression.
DASI
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish tasa, “level”, “even”, “equal”.
Discussion: This represents one of the stronger lexical comparisons. The phonetic correspondence is close, requiring only the regular uncertainty surrounding voiced and voiceless dental consonants in Linear A transliteration. DASI may have functioned as an adjective describing levelness, equality, or uniformity. Such terminology would be entirely compatible with administrative records involving measurements or standardisation.
DA-SI MI-TU
Attestation: Linear A administrative texts.
Comparison: DA-SI has previously been compared with Finnish tasa, “level”, “equal”, and interpreted within this study as relating to weighing or balance. MI-TU has been compared with Finnish mitta, “measure”.
Discussion: The phrase DA-SI MI-TU raises the possibility of a technical accounting expression. Ancient administrative systems commonly distinguished quantities according to weight, balance, or standard measures. The sequence may denote something comparable to “equal measure”, “standard measure”, or “measured weight.” This interpretation is strengthened by the fact that both proposed lexical items belong to the same semantic domain of measurement and accounting. Repeated occurrences of the phrase in similar administrative contexts would considerably strengthen this interpretation.
DAWEDA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish taive, “bend”, “curve”, “fold”.
Discussion: The comparison suggests vocabulary associated with bending or curvature. Such terminology might apply equally to landscape features, manufactured objects, or physical movement.
EVIA (EUBOEA)
Attestation: Evia (Euboea), the second largest island of Greece.
Comparison: Finnish evä.
Meaning: “Fish fin.”
Discussion: The comparison is strengthened by geography. The island is long, narrow, and curved, producing an outline remarkably similar to the fin of a fish. Although this resemblance cannot establish the origin of the name, it represents an interesting correspondence between the proposed lexical comparison and the island’s physical form.
ES
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Hungarian és, “and”; Mansi os, “and”.
Discussion: ES may be compared with conjunctions preserved in several Uralic languages. G
FE
Attestation: Linear A FE.
Possible Uralic correspondence: Hungarian fej.
Meaning: “To milk”; also “head.”
Discussion: The Linear A sign-group FE may be compared with Hungarian fej, a verb meaning “to milk.” Given the importance of cattle, sheep and goats within Minoan society, a lexical association with milking or dairying would be semantically plausible, particularly in the context of agricultural or religious texts where offerings of milk and dairy products may have formed part of ritual practice. “To milk” is an attractive comparison in a Bronze Age Cretan context, where pastoralism and dairy production played significant roles in the economy.
FE-ES-KI-SE
Attestation: Linear A FE-ES-KI-SE.
Revesz’s interpretation: “All stars.”
Comparison: Interpreted by Revesz as a compound built from FE (“all”) together with a reconstructed word for “stars.”
Discussion: This expression occurs in Revesz’s Minoan dictionary as an example of compound word formation. He argues that it illustrates the productive combination of lexical roots within the language, another feature consistent with agglutinative linguistic structure.
FE-LU-NA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Hungarian felleg, “cloud”.
Discussion: The comparison suggests vocabulary associated with weather or the sky.
FE-NU / FE-NE
Attestation: Linear A FE-NU and FE-NE.
Revesz’s interpretation: “Light.”
Comparison: Hungarian fény, “light”, “brightness.”
Discussion: Revesz argues that these two spellings represent dialectal or orthographic variants of the same word. He suggests that variation in the final vowel reflects regional pronunciation or scribal convention. The proposed comparison with Hungarian fény forms one of the recurring lexical items used in his translations of jewellery inscriptions invoking brightness and good fortune.
FE-PA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Hungarian fa, “tree, wood”; Finnish puu, “tree”.
Discussion: The proposed comparison places the word within the semantic field of trees or timber. The term could denote wood as a raw material or a particular species of tree.
FE-WA-LE
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Compared with Hungarian fül and related forms associated with heat or warming.
HAROR
Attestation: Haror.
Type: Settlement.
Location: Southern Levant.
Source: Linear A context.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnic harju
• Finnic hari
Meaning:
“Ridge” or “crest.”
Discussion:
Haror raises the possibility of comparison with the Finnic words harju and hari, both denoting a ridge or crest – the proposed meaning corresponds closely with the site’s physical setting.
The settlement occupies a tell overlooking the Wadi Gerar, standing prominently above the seasonal river course. The tell itself forms a natural ridge dominating the surrounding landscape. Within the framework of this study, this represents one of the strongest topographical correspondences in the present survey, since the proposed Uralic vocabulary describes precisely the defining geographical characteristic of the site. The semantic relationship between the proposed Uralic forms and the landscape is particularly compelling.
JA-SA-SA-RA-ME
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: The final element -me may be compared with the Proto-Uralic first-person plural suffix -me, preserved throughout the Uralic family. Examples include Finnish olemme (“we are”), teemme (“we do”), Estonian oleme, and related forms elsewhere in Uralic.
Discussion: The principal interest of JA-SA-SA-RA-ME lies in its terminal element rather than the interpretation of the entire word. The ending -me is one of the oldest and most widely preserved grammatical suffixes in the Uralic languages, functioning as the first-person plural verbal ending. If the final syllable of JA-SA-SA-RA-ME represents an independent suffix rather than part of the lexical root, it raises the possibility of a morphological correspondence with Proto-Uralic. A single occurrence cannot establish such a relationship, but if further Linear A forms are found ending in -me in comparable grammatical contexts, the cumulative evidence may strengthen the hypothesis advanced in this study that Linear A preserves a language exhibiting Uralic morphological characteristics.
JA-SA-SA-RA-MA-NA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: The terminal sequence -ma-na may be compared with the combination of two well-attested Uralic morphemes: the derivational suffix -ma and the essive case suffix -na. Although -mana is not itself a reconstructed Proto-Uralic suffix, the sequence occurs naturally where these two suffixes combine.
Discussion: Within the framework of this study, the principal interest of JA-SA-SA-RA-MA-NA lies in its final sequence rather than in the interpretation of the lexical stem JA-SA-SA-RA. In the Finnic languages, the derivational suffix -ma commonly forms nouns, while the essive suffix -na denotes “as” or “in the role of”. Their combination is entirely regular.
Modern Finnish provides several examples:
• juoma (“drink”) → juomana (“as a drink”)
• ongelma (“problem”) → ongelmana (“as a problem”)
• ohjelma (“programme”) → ohjelmana (“as a programme”)
In each case, the sequence is analysed as -ma + -na, rather than as a single suffix.
If JA-SA-SA-RA-MA-NA may likewise be segmented into JA-SA-SA-RA + -MA + -NA, the form raises the possibility that Linear A preserves a similar morphological construction
JE-NA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Hungarian jön, “to come”.
Discussion: The proposed comparison places the word within the domain of movement or arrival. If correct, JE-NA could represent a verbal form relating to coming or approaching. The evidence, however, consists primarily of sound similarity.
JETI
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Northern Sámi jiedna, “voice”, “sound”.
Discussion: Within the framework of this study, JETI may be compared with Sámi vocabulary relating to speech or sound.
JU
Attestation: JU.
Type: Possible abbreviated place-name, district or administrative designation.
Location: Unknown.
Source: Linear A tablet HT 97a.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnish joki, “river,” considered only as a possible truncated form
Meaning:
Possible “river place.”
Discussion:
JU might be compared with the initial sound of Finnish joki, meaning “river.” Such a correspondence would be geographically plausible for a settlement situated beside a river or seasonal watercourse.
KADI
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Proto-Finnic käti, Finnish käsi, Hungarian kéz, “hand”.
Discussion: This represents one of the stronger lexical comparisons. Vocabulary referring to body parts is among the most conservative within language families. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, KADI may have denoted the hand or an object associated with manual activity. The comparison is strengthened by its presence across several branches of the Uralic family.
KALYMNOS
Attestation: Kalymnos, an island in the southeastern Aegean.
Comparison: Finnish and Estonian kala.
Meaning: “Fish.”
Discussion: Kalymnos has long been famous for its maritime economy, particularly fishing and sponge-diving. The comparison between Kala- and Finnish kala is therefore supported both phonetically and semantically. The ending -mnos is treated here as part of the Greek adaptation rather than the original lexical stem.
KANA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish and Estonian kana, “hen”.
Meaning: “Hen.”
Discussion: The correspondence is exact. Animal names frequently preserve ancient vocabulary and therefore deserve consideration. Whether the Linear A form referred to domestic fowl, a personal name, or another object cannot presently be determined.
KANAKA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Possible segmentation kana + ka, compared with Finnish kana, “hen”.
Meaning: “Chick.”
Discussion: The repetition of the final syllable may represent derivation, reduplication, or a diminutive formation. Within the framework of this study the form may be compared with vocabulary denoting a young or small bird.
KA-NU-TI
Attestation: KA-NU-TI.
Type: Possible settlement, district or territorial group.
Location: Unknown.
Source: Linear A tablet HT 97a.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnish kannas
• Finnish niitty, considered only remotely
Meaning:
Possible “isthmus,” “ridge” or “meadow place.”
Discussion:
KA-NU-TI raises the possibility of comparison with Finnish kannas, meaning an isthmus, neck of land or ridge. Such a meaning would be geographically suitable for many Cretan settlements, particularly those occupying narrow ridges or land passages. The final portion may also be compared remotely with Finnish niitty, meaning “meadow.” This comparison, however, requires substantial phonological adjustment and cannot be considered strong.
KA-RO-PA
Attestation: Linear A administrative tablets, regularly preceding the vessel ideogram.
Proposed Meaning: Basket or woven container.
Comparison: May be compared with Finnish kori and Estonian korv, both meaning “basket” or “container”.
Discussion: The shared kor-/kr- root is associated throughout the Finnic languages with woven receptacles. The semantic agreement is consistent with the archaeological context, suggesting that ka-ro-pa may denote a basket-like storage vessel.
KAUDETA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish kaataa, “pour, overturn”, or kautta, “through”.
Discussion: Two possible comparisons have been suggested. One places the word within the semantic field of pouring or overturning, while the other associates it with movement through or across.
KEDA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish keto, “meadow”, “dry grassland”.
Discussion: Landscape terminology frequently preserves ancient vocabulary. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, KEDA may have referred to open grassland or pasture.
KI
Attestation: KI.
Type: Possible abbreviated place-name, district or administrative designation.
Location: Unknown.
Source: Linear A tablet HT 97a.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnish kivi, “stone,” considered only as a truncated form
Meaning:
Possible “stone” or “rocky place.”
Discussion:
KI raises the possibility of comparison with the initial element of Finnish kivi, meaning “stone.” A rocky or stony meaning would be appropriate for many Cretan localities. Nevertheless, KI is far too short to establish a meaningful correspondence. It may represent an abbreviated name or an entirely unrelated administrative term.
KI-DA-RO
Attestation: HT 47a.4 and HT 117a.9 (Hagia Triada tablets).
Comparison: Compare the discussion under KI-DA-TA, with Finnish kiittää and Estonian kiita, “to praise”, “to thank”.
Discussion: The existence of both KI-DA-RO and KI-DA-TA raises the possibility that they represent inflected or derived forms of the same lexical stem. Similar variation is observed elsewhere in the Linear A corpus, where recurring stems appear with differing terminal elements. If the hypothesis advanced in this study is correct, the alternation between -RO and -TA may reflect grammatical rather than lexical differences. At present, however, the available evidence is insufficient to determine the function of these endings.
KI-DA-TA
Attestation: HT 40.2 (Hagia Triada tablet). The related form KI-DA-RO is also attested on HT 47a.4 and HT 117a.9.
Comparison: Finnish kiittää, “to thank”, “to praise”; Estonian kiita, “to praise”; Karelian kiittää, “to thank”; Ingrian kiittää, “to thank”.
Discussion: The phonetic resemblance between KI-DA-TA and the Finnic verbal root kiitä- is noteworthy. The occurrence of both KI-DA-TA and KI-DA-RO suggests that the lexical stem KIDA- may take different endings, perhaps reflecting grammatical variation. If the comparison is valid, the underlying semantic field may relate to praise, acknowledgement, or approval. Since the word occurs in administrative documents, however, its precise function remains uncertain, and the resemblance may ultimately prove coincidental.
KIDEMA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish kide, “crystal”, “grain-like structure”.
Discussion: The word may belong to the vocabulary of minerals or materials. Such terminology would be compatible with inventories of manufactured goods or raw resources. The comparison is based principally upon the shared consonantal framework.
KI-RE
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish kirja, kirjo-, “writing”, “inscription”, “mark”.
Discussion: This is one of the most noteworthy comparisons in the present catalogue. The Finnic root kirj-/kirjo- is associated with writing, marking, ornamentation, and inscription – KI-RE may represent vocabulary connected with written records or marked objects.
KIRETA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish kirja, kirjo-, “writing”, “inscription”.
Discussion: The additional syllables may represent derivation or inflection attached to the same lexical root proposed for KI-RE. Repeated occurrences of related forms would strengthen the possibility that Linear A preserved a productive stem connected with writing or marking.
KIRETANA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish kirja, kirjo-, with the possible addition of the sequence -ta-na.
Discussion: The extended form may preserve the same lexical stem as KI-RE and KIRETA, followed by additional grammatical elements. The terminal sequence -ta-na might invite comparison with Uralic morphology, although no secure segmentation can presently be established.
KIREZA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish kirja, kirje, “writing”, “letter”.
Discussion: The comparison belongs to the same lexical family proposed for KI-RE. If correct, the various Linear A forms beginning KIR- may represent related derivatives belonging to the semantic field of writing, inscription, or marked objects.
KIRO
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish kiro, “curse”, “spell”, “malediction”.
Discussion: The correspondence is exact under the conventional transliteration. Should the Linear A context prove to be ritual or religious, the semantic field would be plausible. At present the comparison rests solely upon lexical resemblance.
KU-MI-NA
Linear A and Linear B: identical form.
Strongest surface comparison: Finnish kumina, “caraway” or “cumin”.
The phonetic resemblance is exact under the conventional syllabic reading:
KU-MI-NA ↔ kumina
Finnish kumina denotes caraway or cumin. If the item occurred in an agricultural, food or commodity list, this would be a striking semantic possibility. However, the Finnish word is not inherited from Proto-Uralic; it belongs to a European loanword family ultimately associated with Latin and Greek spice terminology.
A morphological alternative is:
KU-MI + -NA
The ending -na/-nä is an ancient Uralic essive or locative-type suffix, preserved in Finnish expressions meaning “as” or “in the state of”.
KU-PA-DO
Attestation: Linear A tablet KH 5 from Khania, appearing at the end of the recorded sequence.
Proposed Meaning: From the bundle, from the sheaf, from the heap, or from storage.
Comparison: May be compared with Finnish kupo and Estonian kubu, referring to a bundle, sheaf, or gathered quantity, together with eastern Uralic ablative endings resembling -do or -de.
Discussion: The agricultural meaning of the proposed root fits the context of KH 5 particularly well. The final element -do may indicate origin or removal, allowing the whole form to mean “from the bundle” or “from the stored heap.” Ku-pa-do may therefore identify the source from which the recorded commodity was taken or distributed.
KU-DO-NI / KU-DO-NI-JA — Kydonia
Attestation: KU-DO-NI; KU-DO-NI-JA.
Type: Coastal settlement and regional centre.
Location: Kydonia
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Proto-Uralic *kota
• Uralic -ja
Meaning:
“Dwelling place,” “settlement,” or “inhabited district.”
Discussion:
KU-DO-NI raises the possibility of comparison with Proto-Uralic *kota, meaning “hut,” “dwelling,” or “settlement.” Kydonia occupied a low coastal rise beside a protected natural harbour. Its landscape includes rocky headlands, the broad Chania coastal plain and river valleys to the east and west. The White Mountains rise sharply to the south, while maritime routes connected the settlement with the wider Aegean.
The extended form KU-DO-NI-JA may contain a noun-forming or territorial element comparable with Uralic -ja. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, the name may have referred to an inhabited place, settlement or wider settled district.
The proposed correspondence is therefore functional rather than purely topographical: it identifies Kydonia as a place of habitation within an important coastal landscape.
KUKANI / QUQANI
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish kukka, Estonian kukk, “flower”.
Discussion: Plant names often constitute conservative vocabulary. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, the form may have denoted a flower or flowering plant. The phonetic correspondence is moderate and remains speculative.
KU-KU-DA-RA
Linear B parallel: ku-ka-da-ro
Strongest Uralic comparisons: Proto-Uralic interrogative *ku-/*ko- and Finnic/Sámi kota/goahti, “hut, dwelling”.
Proto-Uralic possessed an interrogative-pronominal stem *ku-/*ko-, preserved in Finnish kuka, “who”, kussa, “where”, Sámi gu-, and numerous related forms. The opening ku-ku- could consequently resemble a reduplicated pronominal or distributive formation, although there is no reason yet to assume that this was its function.
The internal element -da- may also be compared, more speculatively, with Finnic kota and Northern Sámi goahti, “hut” or “dwelling”. A division such as ku-ku-da-ra would not correspond exactly, but the sequence ku-da could potentially preserve a form related to kota, especially if the Linear A dental sign represented a wider range of dental sounds.
A possible analysis would be:
KU-KU-DA + -RA
The element -ra is attested as a derivational component in some reconstructed Uralic word families, including *koje-ra, “male”, derived from a root meaning “man, human”. It was not, however, a general-purpose Uralic case ending.
Possible meaning: perhaps a name associated with a settlement, dwelling or person; no secure translation.
KU-NI-SU (Knossos)
Attestation: KU-NI-SU.
Type: Palace centre and settlement.
Location: Knossos, north-central Crete.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnic kumpu
• Finnish kunnas
• Finnish kuningas
Meaning: “Rounded hill” or “mound”; alternatively, “hill”; more tentatively, “king.”
Discussion: KU-NI-SU raises the possibility of comparison with the Finnic words kumpu, meaning “rounded hill” or “mound,” and kunnas, meaning “hill” or “ridge.” Both correspondences are topographical and accord well with the setting of Knossos. The palace complex occupies and surrounds the low Kephala hill overlooking the Kairatos valley, within a landscape of fertile river terraces, gently rolling uplands and a sheltered basin. Mount Juktas dominates the skyline to the south, while the route north descends towards the harbour of Amnisos. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, the name may originally have referred to the low rounded hill upon which the palace centre developed.
A further, more tentative comparison may be drawn with the Finnish word kuningas, meaning “king.” This interpretation is based primarily upon phonetic resemblance and the obvious association of Knossos with political authority as the principal palatial centre of Minoan Crete. However, kuningas is generally regarded as a comparatively late borrowing into Finnic rather than an inherited Proto-Uralic word, making this correspondence considerably weaker than the topographical comparisons with kumpu and kunnas.
KUPA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish and Estonian kuppi, “cup”, “small vessel”.
Discussion: This represents a plausible semantic comparison, especially given the frequency of vessel terminology in Linear A administrative texts. If correct, KUPA may have referred to a cup or small container. The correspondence is strengthened by the archaeological context in which vessels are prominent.
KU-PA-JA
Attestation: HT 116 (Hagia Triada accounting tablet).
Comparison: The initial element KU-PA may be compared with Finnish and Estonian kuppi, “cup”, “small vessel”. The terminal sequence -JA may further be compared with the Finnic third-person possessive ending, although the exact morphology differs.
Discussion: KU-PA-JA appears to represent an extended form of the lexical item KUPA, discussed elsewhere in this catalogue. If the comparison is correct, the word may denote a vessel or container associated with a particular individual or institution. A tentative interpretation such as “his vessel” or “its container” remains speculative, but would fit naturally within an administrative record listing quantities of grain. The occurrence of the form alongside grain measurements raises the possibility that it refers to a storage or measuring vessel rather than the grain itself.
KURA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish and Estonian kura, “mud”, “dirt”, “slush”.
Discussion: The phonetic correspondence is exact. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, the word may have referred to mud, clay, or similar material. Such vocabulary would be consistent with agriculture or construction.
KU-RO
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish kuroa, “draw together”, “close a gap”; alternatively Finnish koko and Estonian kogu, “whole”, “collection”.
Discussion: The administrative contexts in which KU-RO occurs make the second comparison particularly interesting. A meaning connected with collection, total, or gathering would fit naturally within accounting documents.
KU-TA-TO
Attestation: KU-TA-TO.
Type: Settlement or district.
Location: Uncertain.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Proto-Uralic *kota
Meaning:
“Dwelling,” “settlement,” or “inhabited place.”
Discussion:
KU-TA-TO raises the possibility of comparison with Proto-Uralic *kota, meaning “hut,” “dwelling,” “shelter,” or “settlement.” The form KU-TA is not an exact representation of *kota, and the final element -TO remains unexplained. Nevertheless, the general meaning of an inhabited or settled place is appropriate for a toponym.
KUZUNI
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish kuusi, Estonian kuusk, Karelian kuusi, “spruce tree”.
Discussion: Tree names belong to one of the most conservative areas of vocabulary. KUZUNI may be compared with the ancient Finnic word for spruce. A related comparison may also be made with dialectal Finnish niira, “young spruce”, suggesting that both forms could belong to the semantic field of woodland or forestry.
KYTHERA
Attestation: Kythera.
Type: Island.
Location: Southern Aegean Sea.
Source: Minoan and later Greek tradition.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnic terä
Meaning:
“Ridge” or “edge.”
Discussion:
The island name Kythera raises the possibility of comparison with Finnic terä, “edge” or “ridge.” The island is characterised by limestone ridges, steep escarpments, ravines and springs, giving the terrain a distinctly rugged character.
LACONIA
Attestation: Laconia.
Type: Region.
Location: Southern Peloponnese.
Source: Minoan and later Greek tradition.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnic lakea
Meaning:
“Open,” “broad,” or “level.”
Discussion:
The regional name Laconia raises the possibility of comparison with the Finnic word lakea, meaning “open,” “broad,” or “level.” If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, the proposed meaning corresponds closely with the principal geographical feature of the region.
The heart of Laconia is the broad Eurotas plain, enclosed by the Taygetus and Parnon mountain ranges. This wide, open basin forms one of the most distinctive landscapes in southern Greece and contrasts sharply with the surrounding mountainous terrain. Within the framework of this study, the semantic correspondence between lakea and the physical geography is particularly attractive. The descriptive agreement between the proposed Uralic vocabulary and the landscape is noteworthy.
LYCHNIDUS
Attestation: Ancient Lychnidus (modern Ohrid, North Macedonia), traditionally founded by Cadmus according to later Greek tradition.
Comparison: The initial element Lych- may be compared with Northern Sámi luokta, “bay”, “gulf”, “inlet”. The second element -nidus may in turn be compared with the Finnic stem niid-, preserved in Finnish niitty, “meadow”. Together they suggest a hypothetical compound comparable to Luokta-niid(u), “inlet meadow” or “bay meadow”.
Discussion: The comparison is noteworthy because it corresponds closely with the geography of ancient Lychnidus. The settlement occupied a favourable position on the shores of Lake Ohrid, surrounded by sheltered bays, fertile lowlands, wetlands, and meadow-like agricultural land. Such a landscape is compatible with a compound meaning comparable to “bay meadow” or “inlet meadow”. Lychnidus also preserves an example of Uralic-style toponymy associated with the legendary movements of Cadmus through the Balkans before his arrival in Greece.
MELOS
Attestation: Melos.
Type: Island.
Location: Southern Aegean Sea.
Source: Minoan and later Greek tradition.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Proto-Uralic *melä
Meaning:
“Paddle” or “oar.”
Discussion:
The island name Melos raises the possibility of comparison with Proto-Uralic *melä, meaning “paddle” or “oar.” If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, the name may preserve a maritime rather than a purely geographical description.
Melos occupies an important position within the Aegean sea routes and possesses excellent natural harbours. The island was renowned in antiquity for its obsidian resources and formed an important centre of maritime communication. Within the framework of this study, a name associated with paddling or seafaring would therefore be consistent with its long-established nautical significance.
MA-DI
Attestation: MA-DI.
Type: Possible settlement, district or territorial group.
Location: Unknown.
Source: Linear A tablet HT 97a.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Uralic and Finnic maa, “land” or “earth”
• An unidentified second element
Meaning:
Possible “land,” “district” or “territory.”
Discussion: The initial element MA- raises the possibility of comparison with Uralic **ma/mä and Finnic maa, meaning “earth,” “land,” “country” or “territory.”
This is the most obvious Uralic comparison for the form, but the element is extremely short and cannot be considered probative by itself. The second element -DI remains unexplained.
MA-RU
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish marja, Mari marij, “berry”.
Discussion: The comparison rests upon the shared mar- root preserved across several Uralic languages. Plant names frequently belong to conservative vocabulary. MA-RU may have referred to berries, fruit, or another edible plant.
MESARA
Attestation: The Mesara Plain, south-central Crete.
Comparison: Finnish maa, “land”, and sarka (stem sara), “strip of cultivated land”, “field strip.”
Discussion: The comparison is particularly striking because it corresponds closely with the geography of the region. The Mesara is the largest fertile plain on Crete and has served as one of the island’s principal agricultural districts since the Bronze Age. A compound comparable to maa-sara would denote “land strip”, “field strip”, or “cultivated plain”, descriptions entirely compatible with the character of the Mesara.
MITU
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish mitta, Estonian mõõt, “measure”, “measurement”.
Discussion: This represents one of the stronger comparisons within the administrative vocabulary. Measurement terminology is especially appropriate in the context of Linear A accounting documents. MITU may have denoted a measure, quantity, or standard unit. The comparison deserves particular attention because of its compatibility with the archaeological context.
MI-TU KU-RO
Attestation: Linear A administrative texts.
Comparison: MI-TU has previously been compared with Finnish mitta, “measure”, while KU-RO has been compared with Finnish koko and Estonian kogu, “whole”, “total”.
Discussion: The combination MI-TU KU-RO is particularly interesting because both proposed lexical comparisons belong naturally within the vocabulary of accounting. The sequence may be understood as something comparable to “total measure”, “complete quantity”, or “overall measure.” Such an interpretation is consistent with the administrative character of the tablets and may represent one of the clearer examples of two previously proposed lexical items occurring together in a coherent accounting phrase.
-MU
Attestation: Linear A suffix -MU.
Revesz’s interpretation: Accusative case ending.
Comparison: Mansi -m, an accusative singular suffix.
Discussion: Revesz argues that -MU functions as a grammatical case ending rather than part of the lexical root. This forms part of his broader argument that Linear A possessed an agglutinative grammatical structure comparable with the Uralic languages, in which case suffixes are attached directly to nouns.
NA-TI
Attestation: NA-TI.
Type: Possible settlement, district or territorial group.
Location: Unknown.
Source: Linear A tablet HT 97a.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnish niitty
Meaning:
Possible “meadow” or “grassland.”
Discussion:
NA-TI raises the possibility of comparison with Finnish niitty, meaning “meadow.”
The proposed correspondence is semantically suitable for a place-name, since settlements and districts are frequently named after pasture, meadowland or cultivated ground.
NE-RA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish noro, “small stream”; possible reconstructed Uralic landscape vocabulary.
Discussion: If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, NE-RA may have referred to a stream, wet ground, or another landscape feature associated with water.
NIPA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnic dialectal nippa, “small piece”, “fragment”, “tip”.
Discussion: The comparison suggests vocabulary describing small objects or portions. A
NIRA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish dialectal niira, “young spruce”.
Discussion: Together with KUZUNI, this comparison raises the possibility that Linear A preserved botanical vocabulary associated with woodland.
NOJA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish noja, “support”; nojata, “to lean against”.
Discussion: The correspondence is exact. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, NOJA may have referred to support, resting, or leaning. Such terminology could apply equally to architecture, furniture, or physical posture.
-NU
Attestation: Linear A suffix -NU.
Revesz’s interpretation: Adverbial suffix.
Comparison: Hungarian -n/-an/-en, productive adverb-forming suffixes.
Discussion: Revesz identifies -NU as a grammatical ending used to derive adverbial forms. He argues that its repeated occurrence across different inscriptions provides further evidence for systematic Uralic-style morphology in Linear A.
NUDU
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish nuttu, “coat”, “garment”.
Discussion: Clothing terminology occurs regularly within Bronze Age administrative archives. If the comparison is valid, NUDU may have referred to a garment or textile object.
PA-I-TO — Phaistos
Attestation: PA-I-TO.
Type: Palace centre and settlement.
Location: Western Mesara, southern Crete.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnish pata
Meaning:
“Flat surface,” “plateau,” or “flat-topped place.”
Discussion:
The Linear A name PA-I-TO raises the possibility of comparison with Finnish pata, here understood as a flat surface or level area. Phaistos occupies the eastern and lowest of three connected hills, approximately one hundred metres above sea level. The palace stands upon a broad, comparatively level summit platform, with abrupt slopes descending towards the surrounding lowlands. It is therefore better described as a plateau-and-escarpment site than simply as a settlement near a plain.
Below the palace lies the broad and fertile Mesara basin, crossed by the Geropotamos river system. Former wetlands and a lake or marshy area may once have occupied parts of the low ground west of the site. The Asterousia Mountains rise to the south, while the foothills of Ida or Psiloritis lie to the north.
The proposed correspondence may refer to the flat-topped palace plateau itself: an elevated level surface overlooking the Mesara plain.
PAJARE
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish and Estonian paja, “smithy”, “forge”, “workshop”.
Discussion: This comparison places the Linear A word within the sphere of craft production. If correct, the term may have referred to a workshop, forge, or place of manufacture. Such an interpretation would be compatible with Minoan industrial activity.
PA-RA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish paras, “best”; possible Proto-Uralic para.
Discussion: Within the framework of this study, PA-RA may represent an adjective expressing quality or excellence.
PARNASSOS
Attestation: Mount Parnassos, central Greece.
Comparison: The initial element Par- may be compared with several Uralic roots. Finnish pari means “pair” or “twin”, an interesting comparison given the traditional association of Mount Parnassos with nearby Mount Helicon, the two mountains together dominating central Greece. Alternatively, Finnish parantaa, “to improve” or “make better”, preserves the same initial root, while Proto-Uralic has also been reconstructed with par- roots associated with edges, sides, or projecting features.
Discussion: The geographical setting favours the comparison with a Proto-Uralic root referring to an edge or ridge. Parnassos is a long mountain ridge dominating central Greece, making such a landscape description entirely plausible. The following element, -na, is particularly noteworthy, since -na/-nä is among the oldest and best-attested suffixes in Proto-Uralic, functioning as an essive or locative ending. A form comparable to Par-na could therefore have denoted “on the ridge”, “at the ridge”, or simply “ridge place”. The final Greek ending -ssos belongs to a wider class of apparently pre-Greek place-name endings, also found in names such as Knossos, Tylissos, and Halikarnassos. Its meaning remains uncertain. If these names derive from a non-Greek substrate language, Greek may simply have preserved an earlier suffix, perhaps comparable to forms such as -sa, -se, or -so. Parnassos presents one of the more interesting combinations of Uralic lexical and morphological features discussed in the present study.
PA-SE
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish pestä, “to wash”.
Discussion: The resemblance is based chiefly upon the consonantal framework p-s. If correct, the word may have belonged to the vocabulary of washing, cleansing, or purification.
PA-SI
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish pää, “head”.
Discussion: Body-part vocabulary is generally conservative. If correct, PA-SI may have denoted the head or, by extension, a chief or leader. Such semantic developments are widespread among languages.
PAZEQE
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnic pääse, “to escape”, “to pass through”.
Discussion: The comparison suggests vocabulary connected with movement or passage. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, PAZEQE may have referred to passing, entering, or release.
PIMITATIRA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish pimiä, “dark”.
Discussion: The comparison places the word within descriptive vocabulary relating to darkness or obscurity. The proposal deserves notice because of the distinctive pim- root.
PITAKASE
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish pitkä, “long”.
Discussion: PITAKASE may have denoted length or extension. Adjectives describing size or dimension are common in administrative documents.
PU-J
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Hungarian fúj, Mansi pow, Khanty pŏγ, “blow”.
Discussion: The proposed comparison belongs to the semantic field of blowing, wind, or breath. Such vocabulary is widespread across the Uralic family, although the phonetic agreement is necessarily approximate owing to the brevity of the Linear A form.
PU-KO
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish puukko, “knife”.
Discussion: The resemblance is striking, although the Finnish word is generally considered to be of later development. If accepted, the Linear A form might refer to a cutting implement or tool.
PU-RA
Attestation: HT 116 (Hagia Triada accounting tablet).
Comparison: Finnish purra, “to bite”, “to gnaw”, “to chew”.
Discussion: The phonetic correspondence is close. Within the framework of this study, the semantic comparison is particularly noteworthy because grain stores are vulnerable to damage by rodents and other pests. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, PU-RA₂ may denote grain that has been bitten, gnawed, or otherwise damaged. Such a category would be entirely consistent with the practical administration of agricultural stores. Although the comparison remains speculative, it provides a coherent interpretation within the context of the tablet.
PU-U-TA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Mansi wōt, “wind”.
QAJO
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish kajo, “glow”, “gleam”, “dawn light”, “reflection”.
Discussion: QAJO may be compared with Finnish kajo, denoting light, radiance, or reflected illumination. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, the Linear A word may have belonged to the vocabulary of light, brightness, or ritual symbolism.
QA-NU-MA
Attestation: HT 116 (Hagia Triada accounting tablet).
Comparison: The initial sequence QA-NU may be compared with Finnish and Estonian kana, “hen”. The terminal -MA may independently be compared with the ancient Uralic derivational suffix -ma, although it may equally form part of the lexical stem.
Discussion: The resemblance between QA-NU and Finnic kana raises the possibility that the word refers to domestic fowl or poultry. Grain allocations intended as animal feed would be entirely compatible with the administrative character of the Hagia Triada tablets. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, QA-NU-MA may designate grain intended for hens or poultry. Alternatively, the resemblance may be coincidental, and the final -MA may represent either a derivational suffix or an integral part of the lexical stem.
QA-PA
Attestation: Linear A administrative tablets, regularly preceding the vessel ideogram.
Proposed Meaning: Vessel or measuring container.
Comparison: May be compared with Finnish kapa, a wooden scoop or standard grain-measure. Historically, a kapa was a recognised measuring vessel used for grain and other dry goods throughout the Finnic world.
Discussion: The correspondence requires only the substitution of q for k, a phonetic variation that is not unreasonable within the speculative framework adopted in this study. The semantic agreement is particularly noteworthy, as both forms denote containers used for measuring or holding commodities. If correct, qa-pa may preserve an early Uralic term for a measuring vessel.
QA-QA-RO / QA-QA-RU
Linear B: qa-qa-ro
Linear A: qa-qa-ru
Strongest Finnic comparison: Finnish kakara, originally “clod, lump”, later “child; brat”.
If the Linear A q-series represented a velar or labialised velar that could correspond approximately to k, the sequence qa-qa-ru resembles Finnic kakara:
QA-QA-RU ↔ kakara
Finnish kakara derives from Proto-Finnic *kakara, whose earlier meaning was probably “clod” or “lump”; its familiar modern meaning is “child” or “brat”.
The comparison is phonetically appealing because both forms contain a reduplicated ka-ka- structure followed by r. The final vowel differs, but -ru/-ro already alternates between Linear A and B.
Possible semantic applications include:
• a personal nickname, “the child”;
• an object described as a lump or rounded mass;
• a personal name formed from an expressive root.
QA-RE-TO
Attestation: Multiple Linear A inscriptions.
Comparison: Finnish karja, “cattle”, “livestock”, “herd”; Finnish kare, “edge”, “ridge”; Estonian kari, “reef”, “rocky shoal”; the second element has also been compared more tentatively with Finnish raito, “path”, “track”.
Discussion: The comparison with Finnish karja is particularly noteworthy, since herding and livestock formed an essential part of Bronze Age economies and pastoral terminology frequently appears in administrative records. If this interpretation is correct, the word may have referred to cattle, herds, or some aspect of pastoral administration. Alternative comparisons with Finnish kare and Estonian kari raise the possibility that the term belonged more generally to a semantic field associated with land, boundaries, or defined areas, while the possible comparison with Finnish raito suggests routes or tracks, although the phonetic correspondence is less exact. Given the administrative context of many Linear A tablets, vocabulary relating to fields, boundaries, livestock, or agricultural management would not be unexpected. Although the proposed identification necessarily remains tentative, the correspondence with karja offers the strongest combination of phonetic, semantic, and contextual support.
QA-RYA-WA / QE-RYA-U
Linear B: qa-rya-wa
Linear A: qe-rya-u
Strongest Finnic comparison: Finnish kirjava, “variegated, patterned, multicoloured”.
This is potentially the most striking comparison in the list:
QA-RYA-WA / QE-RYA-U ↔ kirjava
Finnish kirjava derives from Proto-Finnic *kirjaba and means “colourful”, “variegated” or “patterned”. The underlying kirja originally referred to a carved, embroidered or decorative mark before developing its modern meaning “book”.
The structural correspondence is notable:
• qe-/qa- ↔ ki-
• -rya- ↔ -rja-
• -wa ↔ Finnic adjectival -va
The Linear B form qa-rya-wa is especially close to kirjava when allowance is made for the syllabary’s imperfect representation of consonant clusters and the approximate nature of the q-signs.
A meaning such as “patterned”, “decorated” or “variegated” would be plausible in an administrative list involving textiles, vessels, animals or commodities. The Linear A form qe-rya-u may preserve the same stem with a different ending or final-vowel treatment.
Possible meaning: “variegated”, “patterned”, “decorated” or “multicoloured”.
QI-NA
Attestation: Linear A tablet KH 5 from Khania, positioned between wi-na-du and ku-pa-do.
Proposed Meaning: Kina, possibly a recipient, estate, place, or administrative district.
Comparison: May be compared phonetically with Finnish kina, “quarrel,” and Hungarian kín, “pain” or “torment,” if the Linear A sign conventionally transcribed qi represented a sound closer to ki.
Discussion: Although the phonetic comparison is close, the known meanings of the Uralic words do not fit the agricultural context particularly well. Qi-na is therefore more likely to function as a proper name or administrative designation. It may identify the person, estate, settlement, or district receiving the recorded goods.
RI-KU
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Compared in the source notes with Hungarian rikolt, “cry out”, and Sámi forms relating to liveliness or animation.
Discussion: The proposed comparison belongs broadly to the semantic field of vocalisation, movement, or emotional expression.
SALAMINA
Attestation: Salamina (Salamis), an island in the Saronic Gulf.
Comparison: Finnish sala.
Meaning: “Hidden”, “secret.”
Possible secondary comparison: Estonian maa, “land.”
Discussion: Salamis occupies a sheltered position close to the Greek mainland, separated by narrow channels. The stem Sala- may therefore be compared with Finnic vocabulary denoting concealment or hidden places. The remainder of the name is not interpreted with confidence.
SA-RA
Attestation: Linear A SA-RA.
Revesz’s interpretation: “King” or “ruler.”
Comparison: Compared with leadership terminology in the Uralic languages.
Discussion: Revesz identifies SA-RA as a title of rulership. If correct, the word would belong to the administrative vocabulary of Bronze Age Crete. His interpretation contributes to his broader reconstruction of political and ceremonial language in Linear A texts.
SA-RU
Linear A and Linear B: identical form.
Strongest Uralic comparison: Proto-Finno-Ugric *śorwa, “horn, antler”. – horn vessle
This root is well established across several Uralic branches:
• Finnish sarvi, “horn”
• Estonian sarv, “horn, antler”
• Livonian sōra/sāra, “horn”
• Northern Sámi čoarvi, “horn, antler”
The reconstructed form is *śorwa.
Linear A sa-ru could represent a reduced form of this root, particularly if final consonants and consonant clusters were not fully written:
SA-RU ↔ *śorwa / sarv-
The comparison is strengthened by the fact that a syllabic script may omit the final consonant of a form such as sarv or represent it imperfectly through an open syllable.
Possible meanings include:
• “horn” or “antler”;
• a horn-shaped vessel;
• an animal distinguished by horns;
• a personal name meaning “Horn”.
If the administrative context involves animals, containers or manufactured objects, this deserves serious attention.
Possible meaning: “horn”, “antler” or “horn-shaped object”.
SE-RI
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Hungarian szerelem, “love”; Mansi sir, relating to feeling or condition.
Discussion: The comparison places the word within the semantic field of emotion or personal relationships.
SE / ∫E
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish isä, esi-isä; Hungarian ős; Mansi äsʹ, “father”, “ancestor”.
Discussion: The comparison is noteworthy because kinship vocabulary is generally conservative throughout the Uralic family. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, SE may have referred to a father, ancestor, or founding figure.
SE-SA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Mansi sūsi, “grow”.
Discussion: If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, SE-SA may belong to vocabulary associated with growth, increase, or development.
SE-TE-NA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Mansi sāti, “perform magic”.
Discussion: Ritual and religious vocabulary occupies a significant place within the Linear A corpus. If the comparison is valid, SE-TE-NA may have referred to ritual activity or magical practice.
SE-TO-I-JA
Attestation: SE-TO-I-JA.
Type: Settlement, district or administrative centre.
Location: Uncertain; possible identifications include Archanes, Mount Juktas or Malia.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnish seutu
• Uralic -ja
Meaning:
“Region,” “district,” or “territorial place.”
Discussion:
Within the framework of this study, SE-TO-I-JA raises the possibility of comparison with Finnish seutu, meaning “region,” “district,” “locality,” or “surrounding country.”
The ending -JA may be compared with the widespread Uralic noun-forming suffix -ja. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, the name may have referred to a region or territorial district rather than to one individual settlement.
The precise topographical interpretation depends upon the identification of the site. An Archanes–Juktas location would place it within a fertile enclosed basin beside Mount Juktas, while a Malia identification would place it upon a broad coastal plain below the Lasithi Mountains.
Because the location remains uncertain, the proposed meaning is best understood in a general territorial sense: a region, district or surrounding land.
SI-SE
Attestation: HT 116 (Hagia Triada accounting tablet).
Comparison: Estonian sise-, “inside”, “interior”; compare also Finnish sisä- and sisäinen, “inside”, “internal”.
Discussion: SI-SE may belong to a semantic field relating to interior space or storage. Administrative records commonly distinguish commodities according to their location, and a designation meaning “inside” or “stored within” would fit naturally in an inventory of grain.
SU-PU
Attestation: Linear A administrative tablets, regularly preceding the vessel ideogram.
Proposed Meaning: Vessel or container.
Comparison: May be compared with Finnish suppo and related Finnic forms denoting a hollow, enclosed cavity or depression.
Discussion: Although the Finnish word does not itself denote a vessel, the underlying semantic field concerns hollowness and containment. Within the administrative context of the Linear A tablets, su-pu may therefore preserve a Uralic root referring to a hollow or container adapted as the name of a particular vessel type.
SKIATHOS
Attestation: Skiathos.
Type: Island.
Location: Northern Sporades, Aegean Sea.
Possible Uralic correspondence: North Sámi skáidi.
Meaning: “Land between two rivers”; “wedge-shaped ridge”; more generally, a wedge-shaped tract of land between converging waterways.
Comparable Uralic place-names:
• Numerous North Sámi place names incorporating Skáidi.
Discussion: Skiathos may be compared with the North Sámi word skáidi, referring to a wedge-shaped strip of land between two rivers or valleys, or to a narrow ridge separating watercourses. Although originally applied to inland landscapes, the underlying concept of land enclosed or defined by converging waterways may also be applicable to an island situated between major sea channels.
Skiathos occupies precisely such a position. The island lies between the channel separating it from the Greek mainland to the west and the open waters of the northern Aegean to the east, while the sea passages to neighbouring Skopelos further reinforce its position within a network of narrow maritime channels. Its elongated form and strategic position between these waterways have shaped navigation throughout its history.
SU-PA-RA
Attestation: Linear A administrative tablets, regularly preceding the vessel ideogram.
Proposed Meaning: Funnel-shaped or hollow vessel.
Comparison: May be compared with Finnish suppilo (“funnel”), preserving the root sup-, or alternatively with soppi, meaning a recess or enclosed space.
Discussion: Both comparisons belong to the semantic field of hollowness, enclosure and containment. Su-pa-ra may preserve an early Uralic root referring to the form or function of a specialised vessel rather than to its material or manufacture.
SU-KI-RI-TA — Sybrita
Attestation: SU-KI-RI-TA.
Type: Inland settlement.
Location: Amari region, central Crete.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnish and Estonian syrjä
• Finnish kuru
• Finnic -ta/-tä, considered tentatively
Meaning:
“Place at the side,” “place on the edge,” or “settlement by the ravine.”
Discussion: SU-KI-RI-TA raises the possibility of comparison with Finnish and Estonian syrjä, meaning “side,” “edge,” or “outlying position.”
Sybrita occupied a high and defensible hill above the Amari Valley, south-west of the Ida or Psiloritis massif. Its landscape includes steep slopes, terraces, tributary valleys and seasonal streams. The settlement controlled routes passing between central, western and southern Crete.
The middle element may also be compared semantically with Finnish kuru, meaning a narrow valley or ravine, although the phonological relationship is uncertain. The ending -TA may be compared cautiously with Uralic and Finnic separative or case-forming elements in -ta/-tä.
The name may describe a settlement standing at the side or edge of a valley, overlooking the surrounding basin and mountain routes.
SUPU
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish dialectal supu, “hidden place”, “enclosed place”.
Discussion: Within the framework of this study, the comparison suggests vocabulary associated with enclosed spaces, concealment, or protected locations.
SU-RA / SI-RA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish syrjä, “edge”, “side”, “boundary”.
Discussion: The proposed comparison belongs to the semantic field of boundaries or edges. If correct, the word could refer to a margin, border, or outer part of an object or landscape.
SYMI
Attestation: Later Greek Syme (Σύμη).
Type: Mountain sanctuary.
Location: Southern slopes of the Dikti Mountains, eastern Crete.
Source: The Sanctuary of Hermes and Aphrodite at Syme Viannou.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Sámi ethnonym Sámi.
Meaning: Possibly “the Sámi place” or “place of the Sámi,” if the proposed comparison is correct.
Discussion: The later place-name Syme raises the possibility of comparison with the ethnonym Sámi. The sanctuary occupies a secluded mountain basin on the southern slopes of the Dikti Mountains, characterised by woodland, springs and rocky uplands, and remained an important religious centre from the Middle Minoan into the Roman period. Linear A-inscribed libation tables recovered from the site demonstrate its importance during the Minoan period. The comparison is based upon phonetic resemblance alone and should not be regarded as evidence for the historical presence of Sámi people on Crete. However, the existence of a comparable proposed correspondence at Samothrace, another mountainous Aegean sanctuary with evidence of Minoan contact, makes the parallel noteworthy. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, Syme may preserve an ancient pre-Greek name resembling the later Sámi ethnonym. Conventional scholarship regards the name as pre-Greek, and the proposed Uralic correspondence remains speculative.
TA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Estonian ta, “he”, “she”; Finnish tämä, “this”.
Discussion: Because the form consists of a single syllable, the comparison is necessarily weak. Nevertheless, demonstrative and pronominal stems beginning t- are widespread throughout the Uralic family. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, TA may have functioned as a demonstrative or pronoun.
TA-NA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish tänä, “this”, “during the present”; possible Proto-Uralic demonstrative.
Discussion: Demonstratives are among the oldest grammatical elements within languages. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, TA-NA may represent a demonstrative expression referring to the present or to proximity. The similarity is particularly interesting because demonstrative stems recur widely throughout the Uralic family.
TA-NA-TU
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish tänä, tämä, “this”, “present”.
Discussion: The extended form may preserve the same demonstrative stem proposed for TA-NA, followed by additional derivational or inflectional material. Repeated occurrence of this stem would strengthen the possibility that demonstrative vocabulary is preserved within the Linear A corpus.
TARAWITA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish and Estonian tarha, “enclosure”, “pen”, “garden”.
Discussion: This is one of the more attractive semantic comparisons. Agricultural enclosures formed an important part of Bronze Age economies, making such vocabulary entirely plausible in administrative documents. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, TARAWITA may have denoted an enclosure, fenced area, or livestock pen.
TASAZA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish tasa, “level”, “equal”, “even”.
Discussion: This comparison belongs to the same lexical group as DASI. The repetition of the tas- root raises the possibility that Linear A preserved a related adjective or derivative. Should several forms cluster around this root, the cumulative evidence would become more significant.
TE-KE
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish verbal stem teke-, from tehdä, “to do”, “to make”.
Discussion: This is among the more interesting verbal comparisons. The correspondence is close both phonetically and morphologically. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, TE-KE may represent a verbal stem meaning “make” or “do”. Such a verb would be expected in almost any language.
TE-KI
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish teki, “did”, “made”; alternatively compared with Proto-Ugric forms relating to looking or observing.
Discussion: The comparison with Finnish teki is particularly attractive because it naturally complements the preceding TE-KE. Within the framework of this study, the pair raises the possibility that related verbal forms may occur in Linear A.
TEREZA
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish terä, “blade”, “edge”, “sharp point”.
Discussion: Tool terminology is a plausible category within Bronze Age administrative records. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, TEREZA may have referred to a blade, cutting edge, or sharpened implement. The comparison is based upon a recognisable lexical root but remains tentative.
THERA
Attestation: Thera.
Type: Island.
Location: Southern Aegean Sea.
Source: Minoan and later Greek tradition.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnic terä
Meaning:
“Edge,” “sharp ridge,” or “cliff.”
Discussion:
The island name Thera raises the possibility of comparison with the Finnic word terä, meaning “edge,” “sharp point,” “blade,” or “ridge.” If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, the name would constitute a remarkably accurate description of the island’s landscape.
Thera is dominated by the steep cliffs that surround its flooded volcanic caldera. Much of the inhabited island occupies the rim of the ancient volcanic crater, where sheer rock faces descend dramatically to the sea. The defining geographical feature is therefore its edge—the elevated ridge forming the perimeter of the caldera. Within the framework of this study, the semantic correspondence between terä and the physical landscape is particularly noteworthy, making this one of the strongest geographical comparisons in the present work. Although the linguistic comparison remains speculative, the descriptive suitability of the proposed Uralic correspondence is striking.
TI
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish tie, “road”, “path”; alternatively Finnish te, “you” (plural).
Discussion: Because of its brevity, TI cannot be securely interpreted. The comparison with tie suggests movement or routes, whereas comparison with te raises the possibility of a pronominal function. Neither proposal can presently be preferred.
TU-RU-SA
Attestation: TU-RU-SA.
Type: Settlement.
Location: Tylissos, Eastern foothills of Psiloritis, west of Knossos.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnic töyry
• Finnish -ssa/-ssä
Meaning:
“At the elevation,” “in the hill country,” or “at the bank.”
Discussion:
Within the framework of this study, TU-RU-SA raises the possibility of comparison with Finnic töyry, meaning a small hill, bank or elevation. A similar landscape is to be found in NE Turkey, where Troy was built on the relatively low Hisarlik Hill.
The final element -SA may be compared tentatively with the Finnish inessive ending -ssa/-ssä, meaning “in” or “at.” On this basis, the name may be interpreted as “at the elevation” or “in the hill country.”
Tylissos occupies the rolling eastern foothills of Psiloritis. Its landscape includes rocky ridges, small valleys, springs, seasonal watercourses and agricultural terraces. Routes from the settlement rise towards the mountains, while the northern coast remains visible in the distance.
USU
Attestation: Linear A inscription.
Comparison: Finnish usu, “mist”, with related usva, “fog”, “vapour”.
Discussion: The correspondence is exact. Weather vocabulary frequently preserves ancient lexical material. If the hypothesis advanced here is correct, USU may have referred to mist, haze, or atmospheric vapour. Although based solely upon lexical similarity, this comparison is among the more attractive environmental parallels in the present catalogue.
WI-NA-DU
Attestation: Linear A tablet KH 5 from Khania, occurring within a sequence associated with agricultural commodities.
Proposed Meaning: Wine, liquid produce, or liquid commodity.
Comparison: May be compared with Finnish viina and Estonian viin, terms referring to alcoholic liquid or spirits.
Discussion: The phonetic structure of wi-na-du resembles the Finnic forms, although the modern words are generally regarded as borrowings. The final element -du may represent a grammatical or administrative suffix. In the context of KH 5, the word may denote wine or another liquid commodity recorded for storage or distribution.
WI-SA-SA-NE
Attestation: Linear A tablet KH 5 from Khania, following a-ra-u-da in the recorded sequence.
Proposed Meaning: The wise one, overseer, or administrative official.
Comparison: May be compared with Finnish viisas, “wise,” together with the Finnic personal or adjectival suffix -nen.
Discussion: The Linear A form closely resembles a derived expression meaning “wise person” or “the wise one.” Within an administrative text, this may have functioned as a title rather than an ordinary adjective. Wi-sa-sa-ne could therefore identify an overseer, recorder, supervisor, or official responsible for managing the agricultural transaction.
ZU / DO
Attestation: ZU or DO, depending upon the reading.
Type: Possible settlement, district or administrative designation.
Location: Unknown.
Source: Linear A tablet HT 97a.
Possible Uralic correspondence:
• Finnic suo, “marsh,” if the reading represents a form closer to su
Meaning:
Possible “marsh” or “wetland.”
Discussion:
Within the framework of this study, the form raises the possibility of comparison with Finnic suo, meaning “marsh” or “wetland.” This interpretation depends upon whether the sign may reasonably be read or understood as representing a form close to su.
A wetland-based place-name would be plausible in the Cretan environment, particularly in low-lying coastal or alluvial districts. However, both the reading of the sign and the proposed meaning remain uncertain.